Strings, bytes and Unicode conversions
######################################

Passing Python strings to C++
=============================

When a Python ``str`` is passed from Python to a C++ function that accepts
``std::string`` or ``char *`` as arguments, pybind11 will encode the Python
string to UTF-8. All Python ``str`` can be encoded in UTF-8, so this operation
does not fail.

The C++ language is encoding agnostic. It is the responsibility of the
programmer to track encodings. It's often easiest to simply `use UTF-8
everywhere <http://utf8everywhere.org/>`_.

.. code-block:: c++

    m.def("utf8_test",
        [](const std::string &s) {
            cout << "utf-8 is icing on the cake.\n";
            cout << s;
        }
    );
    m.def("utf8_charptr",
        [](const char *s) {
            cout << "My favorite food is\n";
            cout << s;
        }
    );

.. code-block:: pycon

    >>> utf8_test("🎂")
    utf-8 is icing on the cake.
    🎂

    >>> utf8_charptr("🍕")
    My favorite food is
    🍕

.. note::

    Some terminal emulators do not support UTF-8 or emoji fonts and may not
    display the example above correctly.

The results are the same whether the C++ function accepts arguments by value or
reference, and whether or not ``const`` is used.

Passing bytes to C++
--------------------

A Python ``bytes`` object will be passed to C++ functions that accept
``std::string`` or ``char*`` *without* conversion.  In order to make a function
*only* accept ``bytes`` (and not ``str``), declare it as taking a ``py::bytes``
argument.


Returning C++ strings to Python
===============================

When a C++ function returns a ``std::string`` or ``char*`` to a Python caller,
**pybind11 will assume that the string is valid UTF-8** and will decode it to a
native Python ``str``, using the same API as Python uses to perform
``bytes.decode('utf-8')``. If this implicit conversion fails, pybind11 will
raise a ``UnicodeDecodeError``.

.. code-block:: c++

    m.def("std_string_return",
        []() {
            return std::string("This string needs to be UTF-8 encoded");
        }
    );

.. code-block:: pycon

    >>> isinstance(example.std_string_return(), str)
    True


Because UTF-8 is inclusive of pure ASCII, there is never any issue with
returning a pure ASCII string to Python. If there is any possibility that the
string is not pure ASCII, it is necessary to ensure the encoding is valid
UTF-8.

.. warning::

    Implicit conversion assumes that a returned ``char *`` is null-terminated.
    If there is no null terminator a buffer overrun will occur.

Explicit conversions
--------------------

If some C++ code constructs a ``std::string`` that is not a UTF-8 string, one
can perform a explicit conversion and return a ``py::str`` object. Explicit
conversion has the same overhead as implicit conversion.

.. code-block:: c++

    // This uses the Python C API to convert Latin-1 to Unicode
    m.def("str_output",
        []() {
            std::string s = "Send your r\xe9sum\xe9 to Alice in HR"; // Latin-1
            py::handle py_s = PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1(s.data(), s.length(), nullptr);
            if (!py_s) {
                throw py::error_already_set();
            }
            return py::reinterpret_steal<py::str>(py_s);
        }
    );

.. code-block:: pycon

    >>> str_output()
    'Send your résumé to Alice in HR'

The `Python C API
<https://docs.python.org/3/c-api/unicode.html#built-in-codecs>`_ provides
several built-in codecs. Note that these all return *new* references, so
use :cpp:func:`reinterpret_steal` when converting them to a :cpp:class:`str`.


One could also use a third party encoding library such as libiconv to transcode
to UTF-8.

Return C++ strings without conversion
-------------------------------------

If the data in a C++ ``std::string`` does not represent text and should be
returned to Python as ``bytes``, then one can return the data as a
``py::bytes`` object.

.. code-block:: c++

    m.def("return_bytes",
        []() {
            std::string s("\xba\xd0\xba\xd0");  // Not valid UTF-8
            return py::bytes(s);  // Return the data without transcoding
        }
    );

.. code-block:: pycon

    >>> example.return_bytes()
    b'\xba\xd0\xba\xd0'


Note the asymmetry: pybind11 will convert ``bytes`` to ``std::string`` without
encoding, but cannot convert ``std::string`` back to ``bytes`` implicitly.

.. code-block:: c++

    m.def("asymmetry",
        [](std::string s) {  // Accepts str or bytes from Python
            return s;  // Looks harmless, but implicitly converts to str
        }
    );

.. code-block:: pycon

    >>> isinstance(example.asymmetry(b"have some bytes"), str)
    True

    >>> example.asymmetry(b"\xba\xd0\xba\xd0")  # invalid utf-8 as bytes
    UnicodeDecodeError: 'utf-8' codec can't decode byte 0xba in position 0: invalid start byte


Wide character strings
======================

When a Python ``str`` is passed to a C++ function expecting ``std::wstring``,
``wchar_t*``, ``std::u16string`` or ``std::u32string``, the ``str`` will be
encoded to UTF-16 or UTF-32 depending on how the C++ compiler implements each
type, in the platform's native endianness. When strings of these types are
returned, they are assumed to contain valid UTF-16 or UTF-32, and will be
decoded to Python ``str``.

.. code-block:: c++

    #define UNICODE
    #include <windows.h>

    m.def("set_window_text",
        [](HWND hwnd, std::wstring s) {
            // Call SetWindowText with null-terminated UTF-16 string
            ::SetWindowText(hwnd, s.c_str());
        }
    );
    m.def("get_window_text",
        [](HWND hwnd) {
            const int buffer_size = ::GetWindowTextLength(hwnd) + 1;
            auto buffer = std::make_unique< wchar_t[] >(buffer_size);

            ::GetWindowText(hwnd, buffer.data(), buffer_size);

            std::wstring text(buffer.get());

            // wstring will be converted to Python str
            return text;
        }
    );

Strings in multibyte encodings such as Shift-JIS must transcoded to a
UTF-8/16/32 before being returned to Python.


Character literals
==================

C++ functions that accept character literals as input will receive the first
character of a Python ``str`` as their input. If the string is longer than one
Unicode character, trailing characters will be ignored.

When a character literal is returned from C++ (such as a ``char`` or a
``wchar_t``), it will be converted to a ``str`` that represents the single
character.

.. code-block:: c++

    m.def("pass_char", [](char c) { return c; });
    m.def("pass_wchar", [](wchar_t w) { return w; });

.. code-block:: pycon

    >>> example.pass_char("A")
    'A'

While C++ will cast integers to character types (``char c = 0x65;``), pybind11
does not convert Python integers to characters implicitly. The Python function
``chr()`` can be used to convert integers to characters.

.. code-block:: pycon

    >>> example.pass_char(0x65)
    TypeError

    >>> example.pass_char(chr(0x65))
    'A'

If the desire is to work with an 8-bit integer, use ``int8_t`` or ``uint8_t``
as the argument type.

Grapheme clusters
-----------------

A single grapheme may be represented by two or more Unicode characters. For
example 'é' is usually represented as U+00E9 but can also be expressed as the
combining character sequence U+0065 U+0301 (that is, the letter 'e' followed by
a combining acute accent). The combining character will be lost if the
two-character sequence is passed as an argument, even though it renders as a
single grapheme.

.. code-block:: pycon

    >>> example.pass_wchar("é")
    'é'

    >>> combining_e_acute = "e" + "\u0301"

    >>> combining_e_acute
    'é'

    >>> combining_e_acute == "é"
    False

    >>> example.pass_wchar(combining_e_acute)
    'e'

Normalizing combining characters before passing the character literal to C++
may resolve *some* of these issues:

.. code-block:: pycon

    >>> example.pass_wchar(unicodedata.normalize("NFC", combining_e_acute))
    'é'

In some languages (Thai for example), there are `graphemes that cannot be
expressed as a single Unicode code point
<http://unicode.org/reports/tr29/#Grapheme_Cluster_Boundaries>`_, so there is
no way to capture them in a C++ character type.


.. _string_view_lifetime:

C++17 string views
==================

C++17 string views are automatically supported when compiling in C++17 mode.
They follow the same rules for encoding and decoding as the corresponding STL
string type (for example, a ``std::u16string_view`` argument will be passed
UTF-16-encoded data, and a returned ``std::string_view`` will be decoded as
UTF-8).

A string view does not own its character data. When a view is loaded as an
argument to a pybind11-bound function, pybind11 keeps the Python object that
provides the data alive until the function returns. This also applies to views
nested in automatically converted STL containers. The C++ function must not
retain any such view after it returns unless it separately guarantees that the
backing storage remains alive and valid.

Lifetime support keeps the Python object alive, but does not prevent its storage
from being invalidated. For example, if C++ releases the GIL or calls back into
Python, resizing a backing ``bytearray`` while the view is in use can invalidate
the view.

A direct Python-to-C++ :func:`py::cast` made when no bound-function call is
active has no such lifetime support. When a cast to a non-owning view succeeds,
the caller must keep the backing Python object alive, with its storage
unchanged, for as long as the view is used. For a container of views, this
requirement applies to every element: retain the elements directly or through
an unmodified owning container, and do not cast an iterable that creates
temporary elements.

Some view conversions require temporary backing storage, for example to encode
text. Outside a bound-function call, such conversions raise
:class:`cast_error` instead of returning a dangling view.

References
==========

* `The Absolute Minimum Every Software Developer Absolutely, Positively Must Know About Unicode and Character Sets (No Excuses!) <https://www.joelonsoftware.com/2003/10/08/the-absolute-minimum-every-software-developer-absolutely-positively-must-know-about-unicode-and-character-sets-no-excuses/>`_
* `C++ - Using STL Strings at Win32 API Boundaries <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-ca/magazine/mt238407.aspx>`_
